The Delhi Sultans
How Delhi grew from a 12th-century Rajput town into the seat of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), and how its Turkish, Khalji, Tughluq, Sayyid and Lodi rulers governed, taxed and defended a vast but unstable empire.
Medieval Indian history is a perennial Prelims hunting-ground: the order of the five dynasties, administrative terms (iqta, muqti, bandagan, kharaj), tax types and women rulers are classic match-the-following fodder. For Mains it feeds GS-I medieval history, administration and society/gender themes, and the reliability of historical sources. Linking Sultanate revenue ideas to Sher Shah and Akbar shows continuity in Indian statecraft.
Understand the chapter
From Rajput Town to Imperial Capital (12th–13th c.)
Delhi mattered little until the 12th century, when the Tomara Rajputs and then the Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer turned it into a thriving commercial centre with rich temples and the widely circulated dehliwal coins. The Chauhans defeated the Tomaras around 1165. The real transformation into an imperial capital controlling vast subcontinental areas began with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 13th century under Qutbuddin Aybak (1206).
- Tomaras: early 12th c.–1165; Chauhans of Ajmer: 1165–1192
- Dehliwal: coins minted at Delhi with wide circulation
- Delhi Sultanate founded 1206 — Delhi now commands a subcontinental realm
The Five Dynasties (1206–1526)
The Sultanate was ruled successively by five dynasties over roughly three centuries. After the early Turkish (Slave/Mamluk) rulers came the Khaljis and Tughluqs — its strongest, most expansive phase — followed by the weaker Sayyids and Lodis, until the Lodis fell in 1526. Mastering this sequence with key dates is the backbone of Prelims preparation.
- Order: Early Turkish (Slave) → Khalji → Tughluq → Sayyid → Lodi
- Qutbuddin Aybak 1206–1210; Khizr Khan (Sayyid) 1414–1421
- Sultanate ends 1526 with the fall of the Lodis
Sources: Tawarikh and the Circle of Justice
Most of our knowledge comes from Persian chronicles called tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), written by learned secretaries, courtiers and poets who both recorded events and advised rulers on just governance. These authors lived in cities (mainly Delhi), wrote for Sultans hoping for rewards, and upheld an 'ideal' social order based on birthright and gender distinctions — so their accounts are biased and largely silent on villagers. Fakhr-i Mudabbir's 'circle of justice' captured the ideal of interdependence between ruler and ruled.
- Tarikh/tawarikh = Persian histories; Persian = language of administration
- Authors were urban, elite and pro-Sultan; ignored ordinary men and women
- Circle of justice: king needs soldiers → soldiers need salaries → salaries from peasant revenue → peasants prosper under justice
Women and Power: Raziyya and Her Peers
In 1236 Raziyya, daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, became the only woman ever to rule the Delhi Sultanate. The chronicler Minhaj-us-Siraj admitted she was abler than her brothers but believed a queen violated God's 'ideal' order, and the nobles resented her independent rule; she was removed in 1240. Queens elsewhere used different strategies — Rudramadevi of the Kakatiyas and Didda of Kashmir.
- Raziyya: 1236–1240; on coins/inscriptions she stressed she was Iltutmish's daughter
- Rudramadevi (Kakatiya, Warangal, modern Andhra Pradesh, 1262–1289): disguised herself as a man
- Didda (Kashmir, 980–1003): title derived from 'didi' (elder sister)
Administration: Bandagan, Clients and the Iqta
To govern a vast realm, early Sultans like Iltutmish relied not on aristocrats but on bandagan — special military slaves wholly dependent on, and hence loyal to, the Sultan. The Khaljis and Tughluqs went further, raising humble-born clients to be generals and governors (Muhammad Tughluq even appointed a wine-distiller, a barber and a cook), which Barani condemned and which bred instability, since such men were loyal to a master, not his heirs. Territories were assigned as iqtas to military governors called muqti/iqtadar, who collected revenue as salary and paid their troops.
- Bandagan = special military slaves; favoured by Iltutmish
- Iqta = land/revenue assignment; muqti/iqtadar = holder; non-hereditary and frequently shifted
- Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq enforced harsh checks; state accountants audited revenue
Revenue and Taxes
Under Alauddin Khalji the state seized control of land-revenue assessment and collection, cancelling local chieftains' rights to levy taxes and forcing them to pay. Officials measured the land and kept careful accounts, and some old chieftains served as revenue collectors. Three core taxes were levied — on cultivation, cattle and houses — alongside khums, zakat and jizyah.
- Kharaj (tax on cultivation) ≈ 50% of the peasant's produce
- Three taxes: on cultivation, on cattle, on houses
- Khums (one-fifth on mines/spoils), zakat (alms, on Muslim traders), jizyah (on non-Muslims, collected with land tax)
Frontiers, Mongols and Decline
The Sultans pushed two frontiers — an 'internal' one, consolidating the hinterland by subduing local chieftains and clearing forests, and an 'external' one of military expansion — yet much of the subcontinent (Bengal, the south, forested tracts) stayed beyond lasting control. Mongol invasions, beginning with Genghis Khan's attack on Transoxiana in 1219 and intensifying under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq, forced a costly standing army at Delhi. After the Tughluqs the weak Sayyids and Lodis presided over fragmentation, opening the way for Afghans and Rajputs and, ultimately, Sher Shah Suri (1540–1555), whose administration became Akbar's model.
- Internal frontier = hinterland consolidation; external frontier = expansion
- Mongols under Genghis Khan struck Transoxiana in 1219; a standing army was raised at Delhi
- Ibn Battuta: 14th-century Moroccan traveller who described chieftains' fortifications
- Sher Shah Suri (1540–1555) borrowed from Alauddin Khalji and modelled Akbar (1556–1605)
Key terms
- Tarikh / Tawarikh
- Persian histories (singular/plural) written by court scholars — the main, but biased, written source for the Sultanate.
- Bandagan
- Special slaves purchased for military service, totally dependent on and loyal to the Sultan; favoured by Iltutmish.
- Iqta
- A territory assigned to a military commander whose revenue served as his salary; not hereditary.
- Muqti / Iqtadar
- Holder of an iqta — a military governor who led campaigns, kept law and order and collected revenue.
- Kharaj
- Tax on cultivation, amounting to about 50% of the peasant's produce.
- Circle of Justice
- Fakhr-i Mudabbir's idea that king, soldiers, salaries, peasants and justice depend on one another in a loop.
- Khums
- A tax of one-fifth, levied on mines and war spoils.
- Zakat
- An alms tax that Muslim traders were obliged to pay under the Sultans and Mughals.
- Jizyah
- Tax on non-Muslims (dhimmi) given state protection, collected along with the land tax.
- Dehliwal
- Coins minted at Delhi under the Tomaras/Chauhans that had wide circulation.
Must-know facts exam-ready
- Delhi Sultanate: founded 1206 by Qutbuddin Aybak, lasted till 1526 — spanning five dynasties.
- Five dynasties in order: Early Turkish (Slave/Mamluk), Khalji, Tughluq, Sayyid, Lodi.
- Before the Sultanate, the Tomara Rajputs and then the Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer ruled Delhi; Chauhans defeated Tomaras c.1165.
- Persian was the language of administration; histories were called tarikh/tawarikh.
- Raziyya, daughter of Iltutmish, was the only woman Sultan of Delhi (1236–1240); chronicler Minhaj-us-Siraj questioned her rule.
- Rudramadevi (Kakatiya dynasty, Warangal, modern Andhra Pradesh, 1262–1289) disguised herself as a man on her inscriptions.
- Didda ruled Kashmir (980–1003); her title comes from 'didi' (elder sister).
- Bandagan = special military slaves favoured by Iltutmish; Khaljis/Tughluqs also raised humble-born clients to high posts.
- Iqta = land/revenue assignment; its holder = muqti/iqtadar; control was non-hereditary and frequently reassigned.
- Kharaj (tax on cultivation) ≈ 50% of produce; other levies — cattle, houses, khums (1/5), zakat, jizyah.
- Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in 1219; attacks peaked under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.
- Sher Shah Suri (1540–1555) built an administration, borrowing from Alauddin Khalji, that became Akbar's (1556–1605) model.
Timeline
- 1165Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer defeat the Tomara Rajputs and control Delhi (to 1192).
- 1206Qutbuddin Aybak — foundation of the Delhi Sultanate (Early Turkish/Slave dynasty).
- 1219Mongols under Genghis Khan invade Transoxiana in north-east Iran.
- 1236Raziyya, daughter of Iltutmish, becomes Sultan of Delhi.
- 1240Raziyya is removed from the throne.
- 1414Khizr Khan founds the Sayyid dynasty (rules to 1421).
- 1540Sher Shah Suri establishes Sur rule (to 1555), reviving Khalji-style administration.
- 1556Akbar's accession; he consolidates the Mughal Empire (to 1605) on Sher Shah's model.
Memory tricks remember it for good
Traps to avoid
- Raziyya was the daughter of Iltutmish, NOT of Qutbuddin Aybak; she is the only woman Sultan of Delhi — don't confuse her with Rudramadevi or Didda, who never ruled Delhi.
- Rudramadevi belonged to the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal (Andhra) and disguised herself as a man; Raziyya did the opposite, stressing she was Iltutmish's daughter.
- Iqta is the land assignment; muqti/iqtadar is its holder — don't swap the two.
- Bandagan (special military slaves) are distinct from 'clients' of humble birth; both rose to high office but the terms differ.
- Jizyah was on non-Muslims while zakat fell on Muslim traders — don't mix up who paid what; kharaj (~50%) was specifically on cultivation.
- Mongols under Genghis Khan first hit Transoxiana (1219), not Delhi directly; the Sultanate faced their onslaught later.
Exam focus
🧠 Prelims angles
- Chronological order, founders and dates of the five Delhi Sultanate dynasties (1206–1526).
- Match administrative terms to meanings: iqta, muqti/iqtadar, bandagan, kharaj, tarikh/tawarikh.
- Sultanate taxes — kharaj (~50%), khums (1/5), zakat, jizyah — and who paid each.
- Women rulers matched to region/dynasty: Raziyya (Delhi), Rudramadevi (Kakatiya/Warangal), Didda (Kashmir).
- Chroniclers and travellers: Ibn Battuta (Morocco), Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziyauddin Barani, Fakhr-i Mudabbir.
- Reforms of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq: revenue centralisation, standing army against the Mongols.
✍️ Mains angles GS-I
- How reliable are Persian tawarikh as sources for the social history of the Delhi Sultanate?Highlight their urban, elite, pro-Sultan bias and silence on ordinary men/women; corroborate with coins, inscriptions and traveller accounts like Ibn Battuta.
- The iqta system and Alauddin Khalji's revenue centralisation strengthened the Sultanate yet carried seeds of instability — discuss.Connect non-hereditary iqtas, state accountants and ~50% kharaj (central control) with the loyalty-to-master-not-heir problem at each succession.
- Examine the paradox of women rulers like Raziyya within a patriarchal medieval order.Use Minhaj-us-Siraj's bias and contrast Raziyya, Rudramadevi and Didda's strategies; tie to GS-I society and gender.
Last-minute revision tick as you recall
- Delhi rose only in the 12th c. under Tomaras and Chauhans (dehliwal coins); Sultanate founded 1206, ends 1526.
- Five dynasties: Slave → Khalji → Tughluq → Sayyid → Lodi.
- Persian = admin language; histories = tarikh/tawarikh — biased, city-based, pro-Sultan.
- Circle of justice (Fakhr-i Mudabbir): king ↔ soldiers ↔ salary ↔ prosperous peasants ↔ justice.
- Raziyya (1236–40), daughter of Iltutmish, only woman Sultan; chronicler Minhaj-us-Siraj.
- Bandagan = military slaves (Iltutmish); Khaljis/Tughluqs raised humble-born clients.
- Iqta = assignment; muqti/iqtadar = holder; non-hereditary and shifted often.
- Taxes: kharaj (~50% cultivation), cattle, houses + khums, zakat, jizyah.
- Mongols (Genghis Khan) hit Transoxiana 1219; Sher Shah (1540–55) modelled Akbar (1556–1605).
Distilled from NCERT Class 7 · Our Pasts II for UPSC. Always cross-check facts with the original NCERT.